How Much Water Do Data Centers Use?
Data centers use water mainly to remove heat from servers and other equipment. The amount can vary significantly depending on the size of the facility, its cooling system, climate, electricity source, and water-efficiency practices.
Quick Answer
Data centers can use anywhere from thousands to millions of gallons of water per day, depending on their size and cooling technology. Across the United States, data centers were estimated to consume about 66 billion liters of water per year in 2023, according to research from Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory.
The most important factor is not simply how much computing a data center performs. Its water use depends heavily on how heat is removed from the facility and how much water is consumed indirectly through electricity generation.
Key Takeaways
- Data center water use varies greatly by facility size and cooling technology.
- Large facilities can consume millions of gallons of water each year.
- Evaporative cooling systems generally use more water than dry cooling systems.
- Water use can be direct, such as cooling towers, or indirect through electricity generation.
- Closed-loop and hybrid cooling systems can help reduce freshwater consumption.
How Much Water Do Data Centers Use Per Day and Per Year?
The total amount of water used by data centers depends on the size and design of each facility. A national estimate can provide useful context, but it should not be treated as the water consumption of every individual data center.
According to a Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory report, U.S. data centers consumed approximately 66 billion liters of water in 2023. That is equivalent to roughly 17.4 billion gallons per year.
Using the annual estimate as a simple average gives the following approximate figures:
| Time Period | Estimated Water Use |
|---|---|
| Per year | 66 billion liters |
| Per year | About 17.4 billion gallons |
| Daily average | About 181 million liters |
| Daily average | About 47.8 million gallons |
These figures are averages across the sector rather than a measurement of a single facility. Individual data centers can use substantially more or less water.
A Practical Estimate for One Facility
One way to estimate data center water consumption is by using water usage effectiveness (WUE). WUE measures the amount of water used by a data center relative to the energy consumed by its IT equipment.
The basic relationship can be expressed as:
Water use = IT energy use × WUE
For example, a facility operating at 1 MW continuously uses approximately 8,760 MWh of energy per year. If its WUE is 0.5 liters per kWh, its annual water consumption can be estimated from that relationship.
| Data Center Size | WUE | Approx. Daily Water Use | Approx. Annual Water Use |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 MW | 0.5 L/kWh | About 3,170 gallons | About 1.16 million gallons |
| 10 MW | 0.5 L/kWh | About 31,700 gallons | About 11.6 million gallons |
| 10 MW | 1.0 L/kWh | About 63,400 gallons | About 23.1 million gallons |
| 100 MW | 1.0 L/kWh | About 634,000 gallons | About 231 million gallons |
| 100 MW | 1.8 L/kWh | About 1.14 million gallons | About 417 million gallons |
These calculations are simplified examples. Actual water consumption depends on operating conditions, cooling-system performance, climate, workload, and the definition of the WUE measurement being used.
How Do Data Centers Use Water?
Data centers generate a large amount of heat because servers, storage systems, networking equipment, and power infrastructure operate continuously. That heat must be removed to keep equipment within safe operating temperatures.
Water Does Not Usually Touch the Electronics
Water used by a data center’s cooling infrastructure generally does not come into direct contact with computer chips or other sensitive electronic components. Instead, water can be part of a cooling loop or used in systems that transfer heat away from the facility.
For a broader explanation of the relationship between computing and water consumption, see how AI uses water.
Direct Water Use Versus the Hidden Electricity Footprint
When discussing how much water data centers use, it is important to distinguish between water withdrawal and water consumption.
Water withdrawal refers to water taken from a source such as a river, reservoir, groundwater system, or municipal supply. Water consumption refers to the portion that is not returned to the original water source, often because it evaporates.
The USGS explanation of consumptive water use provides additional context for this distinction.
There can also be an indirect water footprint associated with the electricity that powers a data center. Electricity generation can require water for cooling and other processes, meaning the total water footprint of computing can extend beyond the physical facility.
Research from Berkeley Lab has examined both direct and indirect water consumption associated with data center electricity use.
| Water Category | What It Means |
|---|---|
| Water withdrawal | Total water taken from a source for use by the facility or system. |
| Water consumption | Water that is not returned to the original source, often because it evaporates. |
| Direct water use | Water consumed at the data center, particularly through cooling systems. |
| Indirect water use | Water associated with producing the electricity used by the data center. |
Why Do Data Centers Use So Much Water?
The biggest reason is heat.
Modern data centers can contain thousands of servers operating continuously. High-performance computing and AI workloads can increase the amount of electricity consumed by individual racks, which also increases the amount of heat that must be removed.
Water can be an effective way to transfer heat. Evaporative cooling can also be energy-efficient because evaporation removes a large amount of heat without requiring the same mechanical cooling load as some conventional systems.
However, that efficiency can come with higher water consumption.
Do Data Centers Recycle Water?
Some data centers reuse water rather than relying entirely on fresh municipal or potable water supplies.
Water-reuse systems can capture and treat water so it can be used again for cooling or other non-potable purposes. The feasibility of these systems depends on local water quality, infrastructure, treatment requirements, and facility design.
One well-known example is Microsoft’s water reuse project in Quincy, Washington. The EPA case study on water reuse for data center cooling describes how treated wastewater can be used instead of relying entirely on potable water.
Which Cooling Systems Use the Most Water?
Not every data center uses water in the same way. Cooling technology can make a major difference in water consumption.
| Cooling System | Typical Water Use | Why It Matters |
|---|---|---|
| Cooling tower or evaporative cooling | Usually high | Evaporation can provide efficient heat rejection but consumes water. |
| Air-cooled chiller or dry cooler | Low or near zero for heat rejection | Uses air instead of evaporating water to reject heat. |
| Closed-loop direct-to-chip cooling | Low inside server loop | Liquid circulates through a closed system to remove heat from high-density components. |
| Immersion cooling | Low in equipment loop | Servers are immersed in a specialized cooling fluid that transfers heat efficiently. |
| Hybrid cooling | Variable | Combines different cooling methods depending on temperature and operating conditions. |
Closed-loop approaches can reduce the amount of water that needs to be continuously replenished. Microsoft has described data center cooling designs that use closed-loop systems to circulate liquid rather than continually consuming fresh water.
See Microsoft’s sustainability information for additional details about its data center cooling and water-efficiency work.
How Data Centers Can Reduce Water Consumption
Data center operators have several ways to reduce water consumption while still maintaining reliable cooling.
- Use dry cooling where practical: Air-based systems can reduce or eliminate water consumption associated with evaporative heat rejection.
- Improve cooling efficiency: Better airflow management, temperature controls, and equipment design can reduce the cooling load.
- Use closed-loop cooling: Closed-loop systems can circulate cooling fluid repeatedly rather than requiring constant replacement.
- Reuse treated wastewater: Reclaimed water can replace potable water for appropriate cooling applications.
- Optimize water treatment: Better treatment and filtration can allow cooling water to be reused more effectively.
- Match cooling technology to climate: Local weather conditions can influence whether evaporative, dry, or hybrid systems make the most sense.
- Monitor WUE: Tracking water usage effectiveness gives operators a measurable way to identify inefficiencies.
- Reduce unnecessary heat: More efficient servers and power systems can lower the amount of heat that cooling equipment must remove.
- Consider water availability during site selection: Data centers can be planned in locations where cooling requirements and local water resources are compatible.
Water efficiency is increasingly connected with the broader development of AI and computing infrastructure. You can explore more technology topics in the TechMezz AI category.
How to Evaluate a Data Center Water Claim
When you see a claim about how much water a data center uses, check the details before comparing it with another facility.
- Check whether the number refers to withdrawal or consumption.
- Find out whether the figure represents daily, monthly, or annual water use.
- Check the size and power demand of the data center.
- Look at the cooling technology being used.
- Determine whether the estimate includes indirect water use from electricity generation.
- Check the climate and location of the facility.
- Look for the WUE value or another clearly defined measurement.
- Check the year of the estimate because data center infrastructure and cooling technology change over time.
Important: A large water-use number does not automatically mean that every data center has the same footprint. Comparisons are meaningful only when the measurement method, facility size, time period, and system boundaries are similar.
Frequently Asked Questions
How much water does a data center use per day?
Water use varies widely by facility. A small facility may use thousands of gallons per day, while a large data center using evaporative cooling can consume hundreds of thousands or more per day.
Do all data centers use water for cooling?
No. Some data centers use air-cooled or dry cooling systems that require little or no water for heat rejection. Others use evaporative, hybrid, or liquid cooling systems.
Why do AI data centers use so much water?
AI workloads can require high-density computing equipment that consumes significant electricity and produces substantial heat. Cooling systems must remove that heat, and some cooling technologies consume water in the process.
Can data centers recycle their cooling water?
Yes. Some facilities use reclaimed water, closed-loop cooling, or other reuse systems to reduce freshwater consumption. The practical options depend on the facility and local infrastructure.
Is water use the same as water withdrawal?
No. Water withdrawal is the amount taken from a water source, while water consumption generally refers to the portion that is not returned to the original source, often because it evaporates.
Conclusion
So, how much water do data centers use? There is no single number that applies to every facility. Water consumption can range from thousands of gallons per day at smaller facilities to hundreds of thousands or even millions of gallons per day at very large sites, depending on their cooling systems and operating conditions.
At the national level, U.S. data centers consumed an estimated 66 billion liters of water in 2023. But individual facilities can have dramatically different water footprints.
The most important factors are facility size, cooling technology, climate, electricity demand, water efficiency, and whether reclaimed water or closed-loop systems are used. Understanding these factors makes it easier to evaluate data center water claims without relying on a single headline number.